US Chinese Enclaves and the Demographic Developments (1850-1980)
Mai Couper
To what extent were Chinese enclaves within America changed demographically and influenced by exterior forces between 1850 – 1980?
Chinese Enclaves Demographic Changes and Exterior Forces from 1850 - 1980
Chinese immigration into the United States has changed conspicuously over the years of its development. From the gold mining rush to the development of Chinatowns, demographic changes are evident.
Increases in Chinese Population.
Career and Educational opportunities have led to the rise in the Chinese population of America. Differences in wages brought about increases in Chinese immigration. Many Chinese immigrated from Guangzhou, driven by the economic depression and wish to support their families.
From 1851 to 1855, over 50,000 Chinese immigrants travelled to California searching for gold.[1] As news travelled about the economic prosperity of the United States, the population of migrants grew. By the 1980s, there were over 800,000 Chinese migrants within America.[2] Due to mass discrimination, immigration plateaued though increased after women gained citizenship. Despite this, there were still many restrictions limiting Chinese immigration, this impacting population and gender growth.
Influences of Education on Chinese Population.
Chinese Education programs contributed significantly to the increases in the Chinese American population. The Chinese Educational Mission (CEM) inspired this change due to the students it produced. Families had been reluctant to immigrate due to concerns over American education. The CEM program positively influencing this perception.
By 1905, San Francisco established its own segregated Chinese Primary school.[3] Eventually, this school expanded to include all Asian immigrants. Restrictions were lifted in 1965, a rise in Chinese immigrants seeking a "better" education occurring. This kick-started the populations of Chinese Americans we see today.[4]
Demographic Changes to Women within America.
Changes in legislation signified fluctuations in female Chinese immigrants over time within America. Chinese women were often hired as prostitutes by entrepreneurs to provide income.[5] Since then, changes to citizenship laws led to changes in motives for female Chinese immigration. Eventually, Chinese women were allowed to enter America and gain citizenship on their terms. Consequently, the Chinese population increased and changes to female occupation occurred.
Demographic Changes to Jobs.
Following the exclusion laws placed, Chinese citizens within America began to consolidate due to exterior pressures from the public. Chinese males immigrated to America in the 19th century to work as labourers making up 20% of America's job population (1870).[6] As discrimination increased, Chinese occupations changed. The American depression of 1876 further escalated the discrimination felt within America. 'Cultural Exoticism' was soon built upon with Chinese immigrants working in industries that played to this concept.[7]
Culturally Exotic Jobs:
External Forces and their Impacts on Chinese Enclaves.
Anti-Chinese sentiment played a vital role in the creation of enclaves, public distrust driving Chinese immigrants to communities of people with similar values. Shifts in how the Chinese American community viewed themselves and conveyed their culture can be attributed to these changes. Chinese immigrants are shown to value their culture over other aspects such as religion.[9] Chinese New Year became centred around Chinese culture than religion within America shows this. These exterior forces have thus changed the cultural identity of Chinese Americans.
American legislation was the dominating force in creating these demographic shifts. Restrictions placed on Chinese immigrants dictated :
Chinese immigration has evolved from the 1850s despite the exterior forces that played against it. Many negatives can be applied to the situation, some exterior forces can be positively seen.
The rebuilding of San Francisco’s Chinatown after the 1906 earthquake shows the endurance and strength of Chinese immigrants.[10] The changes made to its enclave showed to be economically beneficial as it bought new income into the area through tourism. Eventually, this enclave aided in changing the American perception of Chinese immigrants and their culture. Overall, Chinese immigrants triumphed over many challenges, paving the way for many different cultural groups to come. American perceptions of immigrants have evolved due to Chinese immigration in the 19th century and continues to develop with the changing climate.
FULL BIBLIOGRAPHY CAN BE ACCESSED HERE
[1] Betty Lee Sung, Mountain of Gold: The Story of the Chinese in America (New York: Macmillan, 1967).
[2] Timothy J. Hatton, “United States Immigration Policy: The 1965 Act and Its Consequences,” The Scandinavian Journal of Economics 117, no. 2 (2014): pp. 347-368, https://doi.org/10.1111/sjoe.12094.
[3] Center for Global Education, “Asian Americans Then and Now,” Asia Society, accessed January 24, 2022, https://asiasociety.org/education/asian-americans-then-and-now.
[4] IBID
[5] Lucie Cheng Hirata, “Free, Indentured, Enslaved: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth-Century America,” Prostitution, 1993, pp. 123-149, https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110976366.123.
[6] Center for Global Education, “Asian Americans Then and Now,”.
[7] Robert P Maccubbin, “Exoticism and the Culture of Exploration,” Eighteenth-Century Life 26, no. 3 (2002): p. 236.
[8] Xiaoyi Huang (1992), https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5237&context=etd.
[9] Gregory B. Lee, “Dirty, Diseased and Demented: The Irish, the Chinese, and Racist Representation,” Transtext(e)s Transcultures 跨文本跨文化, no. 12 (January 2017), https://doi.org/10.4000/transtexts.1011.
[10] Char Miller, Annelle Curulla, and Michelle Berenfeld (2021), https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2743&context=scripps_theses.
Chinese immigration into the United States has changed conspicuously over the years of its development. From the gold mining rush to the development of Chinatowns, demographic changes are evident.
Increases in Chinese Population.
Career and Educational opportunities have led to the rise in the Chinese population of America. Differences in wages brought about increases in Chinese immigration. Many Chinese immigrated from Guangzhou, driven by the economic depression and wish to support their families.
From 1851 to 1855, over 50,000 Chinese immigrants travelled to California searching for gold.[1] As news travelled about the economic prosperity of the United States, the population of migrants grew. By the 1980s, there were over 800,000 Chinese migrants within America.[2] Due to mass discrimination, immigration plateaued though increased after women gained citizenship. Despite this, there were still many restrictions limiting Chinese immigration, this impacting population and gender growth.
Influences of Education on Chinese Population.
Chinese Education programs contributed significantly to the increases in the Chinese American population. The Chinese Educational Mission (CEM) inspired this change due to the students it produced. Families had been reluctant to immigrate due to concerns over American education. The CEM program positively influencing this perception.
By 1905, San Francisco established its own segregated Chinese Primary school.[3] Eventually, this school expanded to include all Asian immigrants. Restrictions were lifted in 1965, a rise in Chinese immigrants seeking a "better" education occurring. This kick-started the populations of Chinese Americans we see today.[4]
Demographic Changes to Women within America.
Changes in legislation signified fluctuations in female Chinese immigrants over time within America. Chinese women were often hired as prostitutes by entrepreneurs to provide income.[5] Since then, changes to citizenship laws led to changes in motives for female Chinese immigration. Eventually, Chinese women were allowed to enter America and gain citizenship on their terms. Consequently, the Chinese population increased and changes to female occupation occurred.
Demographic Changes to Jobs.
Following the exclusion laws placed, Chinese citizens within America began to consolidate due to exterior pressures from the public. Chinese males immigrated to America in the 19th century to work as labourers making up 20% of America's job population (1870).[6] As discrimination increased, Chinese occupations changed. The American depression of 1876 further escalated the discrimination felt within America. 'Cultural Exoticism' was soon built upon with Chinese immigrants working in industries that played to this concept.[7]
Culturally Exotic Jobs:
- Chinese Restaurant Workers
- Herbal Physicians
- Prostitution
- Vendor Owners
External Forces and their Impacts on Chinese Enclaves.
Anti-Chinese sentiment played a vital role in the creation of enclaves, public distrust driving Chinese immigrants to communities of people with similar values. Shifts in how the Chinese American community viewed themselves and conveyed their culture can be attributed to these changes. Chinese immigrants are shown to value their culture over other aspects such as religion.[9] Chinese New Year became centred around Chinese culture than religion within America shows this. These exterior forces have thus changed the cultural identity of Chinese Americans.
American legislation was the dominating force in creating these demographic shifts. Restrictions placed on Chinese immigrants dictated :
- Occupation
- Family lifestyle
- Income
- Where they lived
Chinese immigration has evolved from the 1850s despite the exterior forces that played against it. Many negatives can be applied to the situation, some exterior forces can be positively seen.
The rebuilding of San Francisco’s Chinatown after the 1906 earthquake shows the endurance and strength of Chinese immigrants.[10] The changes made to its enclave showed to be economically beneficial as it bought new income into the area through tourism. Eventually, this enclave aided in changing the American perception of Chinese immigrants and their culture. Overall, Chinese immigrants triumphed over many challenges, paving the way for many different cultural groups to come. American perceptions of immigrants have evolved due to Chinese immigration in the 19th century and continues to develop with the changing climate.
FULL BIBLIOGRAPHY CAN BE ACCESSED HERE
[1] Betty Lee Sung, Mountain of Gold: The Story of the Chinese in America (New York: Macmillan, 1967).
[2] Timothy J. Hatton, “United States Immigration Policy: The 1965 Act and Its Consequences,” The Scandinavian Journal of Economics 117, no. 2 (2014): pp. 347-368, https://doi.org/10.1111/sjoe.12094.
[3] Center for Global Education, “Asian Americans Then and Now,” Asia Society, accessed January 24, 2022, https://asiasociety.org/education/asian-americans-then-and-now.
[4] IBID
[5] Lucie Cheng Hirata, “Free, Indentured, Enslaved: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth-Century America,” Prostitution, 1993, pp. 123-149, https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110976366.123.
[6] Center for Global Education, “Asian Americans Then and Now,”.
[7] Robert P Maccubbin, “Exoticism and the Culture of Exploration,” Eighteenth-Century Life 26, no. 3 (2002): p. 236.
[8] Xiaoyi Huang (1992), https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5237&context=etd.
[9] Gregory B. Lee, “Dirty, Diseased and Demented: The Irish, the Chinese, and Racist Representation,” Transtext(e)s Transcultures 跨文本跨文化, no. 12 (January 2017), https://doi.org/10.4000/transtexts.1011.
[10] Char Miller, Annelle Curulla, and Michelle Berenfeld (2021), https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2743&context=scripps_theses.