Indian Indentured Labourers and their effects on Fiji’s Poverty
How the Hindu Caste System affected to Poverty in Fiji
Anisha Khan
Introduction
The emancipation of slaves by the Act of Emancipation 1838, severe labour shortages occurred in the British colonies. Which resulted in the introduction of the Inidan Indentured Immigration system. Over 2 million Indian labourers were sent to several British colonies including Fiji. Over 60,000 Indians were sent to Fiji, to work on the Fiji sugar cane plantations. A huge proportion of the 60,000 Indian labourers consisted of people from the Hindu religion. Casteism was a major part of the Hindu tradition, which had some long term effects on the Fijis Poverty.
The emancipation of slaves by the Act of Emancipation 1838, severe labour shortages occurred in the British colonies. Which resulted in the introduction of the Inidan Indentured Immigration system. Over 2 million Indian labourers were sent to several British colonies including Fiji. Over 60,000 Indians were sent to Fiji, to work on the Fiji sugar cane plantations. A huge proportion of the 60,000 Indian labourers consisted of people from the Hindu religion. Casteism was a major part of the Hindu tradition, which had some long term effects on the Fijis Poverty.
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The Caste System:
The Hindu caste system was a social system that divided the Hindu society into hierarchical sections.[1] Peoples caste determined their social status and occupation. This diagram shows the hierarchical ranks of the Hindu caste system. It also broadly provides examples of the occupations determined by each caste category. Sub-Castes The five main caste groups, including the untouchables, had over 2000 sub-castes, as of the early 1900s.[2] Each sub-caste represents an occupation. For example, the sub-caste "Ahir" represents Agriculturalists, or "Pariahs" represents Labourers. |
Caste determined Social Status:
Four main characteristics of Casteism:[8]
Historical Background of Casteism
This caste system had existed in India for thousands of years. It is one of the key elements of the Hindu tradition.[9] There exists a range of different religious literature on casteism.[10] One of the oldest pieces of literature Rigveda, mentions that there is no substantial division between the caste groups, that the caste does not determine one's occupation, and it is not hereditary.[11] Likewise, many historians argue that before the 18th century there were no significant differences between the castes and that people were allowed to choose their caste.[12]
Over time, the caste system became more politicized and divisional. This has had negative effects on the lower castes: Shudras and Dallits (untouchables). The lower castes were denied education, well-paid occupations and other social benefits.[13] Over time, the lower castes became more backwards and poorer.
The Indenture Period:
- A Brahmin had the highest status. They were highly respected in Hindu society. As the diagram shows the Brahmin caste was made up of religious scholars and priests. They were seen as the "highest form of purity"[3], and the most knowledgeable that people would blindly believe in whatever they said.
- The Kshatriyas were inferior to the Brahmin's, but they were the second most powerful caste. Kshatriyas were the governing and military class.[4]
- The Vaishyas were usually considered the middle class. Vaishyas usually worked for the Kshatriya caste. They looked after agriculture and trade.
- The Shudras were usually associated with menial work. Despite being the lowest caste, they did have some respect in their society. However, some Brahmins avoided contact with the people of the Shudra caste, as they were the lowest of the four castes.
- The Dalits were not considered a caste by most Hindus.[5] Dalits were also known as the "untouchables". The Dalits were considered unclean. A common belief was that a non-Dalit became impure if they touch or met a Dalit.[6] Dalits had no respect in society they were considered people with low character.[7]
Four main characteristics of Casteism:[8]
- Caste was Hereditary. Hindus inherited their caste from their parents.
- It was endogamous Intercaste marriages were not allowed.
- Their Occupation was determined by caste. Each caste consisted of a set of distinct occupations.
- A Hindu was not allowed to eat or drink with members of other castes. Members of higher castes usually avoided contact with lower caste members.
Historical Background of Casteism
This caste system had existed in India for thousands of years. It is one of the key elements of the Hindu tradition.[9] There exists a range of different religious literature on casteism.[10] One of the oldest pieces of literature Rigveda, mentions that there is no substantial division between the caste groups, that the caste does not determine one's occupation, and it is not hereditary.[11] Likewise, many historians argue that before the 18th century there were no significant differences between the castes and that people were allowed to choose their caste.[12]
Over time, the caste system became more politicized and divisional. This has had negative effects on the lower castes: Shudras and Dallits (untouchables). The lower castes were denied education, well-paid occupations and other social benefits.[13] Over time, the lower castes became more backwards and poorer.
The Indenture Period:
The data used for this treemap is from the data sample of the Indian immigrant passes, that were issued to each emigrant.
The treemap displays the proportion of religion, caste and sub-caste of the Indian labourers who came to Fiji during the indenture period.
The treemap has three layers. The first layer shows the proportion of the labourer's religion. This indicates that the Hindus were the biggest religious group to arrive in Fiji during the indenture period. When you click on the Hindu label, you will get to the second layer, which portrays the proportion of the Hindu castes that arrived. If you then click on a caste you will get to the third layer that shows the proportion of subcastes of the Hindu labourers.
The Treemap clearly shows that Hindus were the biggest religious group to arrive in Fiji and within the Hindu religion the lower caste was the largest Hindu caste to arrive in Fiji.
Why Dalits agreed to the indenture system?
Emigration in India was unpopular at the beginning. Indians were scared to leave their families, villages, their close relationships with God, lose their caste.[14] The lower Castes were the biggest caste group to travel to Fiji, clearly because they had nothing to lose. The living conditions of untouchables in India was immoral. They faced economic problems, were not allowed to gain education, did not have well-paid occupations, and most importantly faced social inequality.[15] Migration was like an escape from the poverty and caste oppression, for many labourers.[16]
Why the Higher Caste travelled to Fiji?
The treemap shows that were also some higher caste people who emigrated from India. Most of them were from the Vaishyas caste who were experienced in farming and agriculture, but there were people from higher castes such as Kshatriyas and Brahmins. Most of these people went to Fiji to earn more money as sugar cane farmers. But there were also people of the higher caste who were offered civil service positions in Fiji.[17]
Lower-Caste labourers Repressed in Fiji?
The labourer's wages were less than the wages they earned in India.[18] Labourers found it difficult to afford enough food in Fiji.[19] Going to Fiji did not solve their economic issues.
After their contracts expired, they were free to stay back or go back to India with a paid trip.[20] Most labourers mainly the lower castes did not have the money to return to India.[21] Higher caste people were able to return, since they had money, or they had sufficient education and work skills back from India, which got them better jobs than most labourers. After their five-year contract, they were able to get into jobs (civil service jobs) that earned them high wages. After which they returned it to India if they wished. One of the people who returned to India was Totaram Sandhya, a Brahmin. He was a well-educated lecturer.[22] Casteism never allowed Dalits to get an education or get an occupation that gave them useful skills. These are the long-term consequences of the caste system. Casteism faded quickly in Fiji but its effects of it on the Dalits remained.
Sugar cane farm leases
After the indenture period ended, the Colonial Sugar Refining Company (CSR) bought the European sugar plantations and subdivided them into plots.[23] Thes plots were then leased to the Indian labourers who stayed back in Fiji. The labourers then cultivated sugarcane for the sugar mills.[24]
The problem with these land leases was that they were reserved. This meant that the leased lands the Indians and Indo-Fijians resided on and farmed on, would get given back to the native Fijian owners at some point.[25] The land lease was hereditary, which meant that the Indians could pass on the leased land to their subsequent generations.[26] The land leases were as long as ninety-nine years.[27] The first bunch of land leases expired in the early 21st century.[28]
The treemap displays the proportion of religion, caste and sub-caste of the Indian labourers who came to Fiji during the indenture period.
The treemap has three layers. The first layer shows the proportion of the labourer's religion. This indicates that the Hindus were the biggest religious group to arrive in Fiji during the indenture period. When you click on the Hindu label, you will get to the second layer, which portrays the proportion of the Hindu castes that arrived. If you then click on a caste you will get to the third layer that shows the proportion of subcastes of the Hindu labourers.
The Treemap clearly shows that Hindus were the biggest religious group to arrive in Fiji and within the Hindu religion the lower caste was the largest Hindu caste to arrive in Fiji.
Why Dalits agreed to the indenture system?
Emigration in India was unpopular at the beginning. Indians were scared to leave their families, villages, their close relationships with God, lose their caste.[14] The lower Castes were the biggest caste group to travel to Fiji, clearly because they had nothing to lose. The living conditions of untouchables in India was immoral. They faced economic problems, were not allowed to gain education, did not have well-paid occupations, and most importantly faced social inequality.[15] Migration was like an escape from the poverty and caste oppression, for many labourers.[16]
Why the Higher Caste travelled to Fiji?
The treemap shows that were also some higher caste people who emigrated from India. Most of them were from the Vaishyas caste who were experienced in farming and agriculture, but there were people from higher castes such as Kshatriyas and Brahmins. Most of these people went to Fiji to earn more money as sugar cane farmers. But there were also people of the higher caste who were offered civil service positions in Fiji.[17]
Lower-Caste labourers Repressed in Fiji?
The labourer's wages were less than the wages they earned in India.[18] Labourers found it difficult to afford enough food in Fiji.[19] Going to Fiji did not solve their economic issues.
After their contracts expired, they were free to stay back or go back to India with a paid trip.[20] Most labourers mainly the lower castes did not have the money to return to India.[21] Higher caste people were able to return, since they had money, or they had sufficient education and work skills back from India, which got them better jobs than most labourers. After their five-year contract, they were able to get into jobs (civil service jobs) that earned them high wages. After which they returned it to India if they wished. One of the people who returned to India was Totaram Sandhya, a Brahmin. He was a well-educated lecturer.[22] Casteism never allowed Dalits to get an education or get an occupation that gave them useful skills. These are the long-term consequences of the caste system. Casteism faded quickly in Fiji but its effects of it on the Dalits remained.
Sugar cane farm leases
After the indenture period ended, the Colonial Sugar Refining Company (CSR) bought the European sugar plantations and subdivided them into plots.[23] Thes plots were then leased to the Indian labourers who stayed back in Fiji. The labourers then cultivated sugarcane for the sugar mills.[24]
The problem with these land leases was that they were reserved. This meant that the leased lands the Indians and Indo-Fijians resided on and farmed on, would get given back to the native Fijian owners at some point.[25] The land lease was hereditary, which meant that the Indians could pass on the leased land to their subsequent generations.[26] The land leases were as long as ninety-nine years.[27] The first bunch of land leases expired in the early 21st century.[28]
Childs, Iraphne R (1981). Indian farms, Nadi, Fiji 1981. QUT https://digitalcollections.qut.edu.au/646/
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Childs, Iraphne R (1981). Indian farms, Nadi, Fiji 1981. QUThttps://digitalcollections.qut.edu.au/646/
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These pictures are of the farms which the Indian farmers and their subsequent generations, worked on for decades. During the mid-1900s rural areas such as Lautoka had the majority Indian population.[29] When their lease expired, they left the farms and moved out to more urban locations, since too expensive to live in the rural areas.
"Fiji Population (2022) - Worldometer". 2022. Worldometers.Info. https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/fiji-population/.
"Census Of Population And Housing - Fiji Bureau Of Statistics". 2022. Statsfiji.Gov.Fj. https://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/statistics/2007-census-of-population-and-housing.
This table more precisely shows the Indo-Fijian population increassing in urban areas and decreasing in the rural areas. This is als the perios when the major land leases of ninety-nine days began to expire.
Informal Settlements (Squatters)
These people ended up in informal settlements called "Squatters". Squatters in Fiji are where people in severe poverty live.[30] These Indo-Fijian who moved out to Urban areas were the descendants of the indentured labourers, who were pushed out of the rural areas, because of land expiration. By 2013, nearly 20% of the Fijian population ended up in Squatters, many of them being of Indian origin.5 These were descendants of those lower caste labourers who came from India.
Informal Settlements (Squatters)
These people ended up in informal settlements called "Squatters". Squatters in Fiji are where people in severe poverty live.[30] These Indo-Fijian who moved out to Urban areas were the descendants of the indentured labourers, who were pushed out of the rural areas, because of land expiration. By 2013, nearly 20% of the Fijian population ended up in Squatters, many of them being of Indian origin.5 These were descendants of those lower caste labourers who came from India.
Footnotes
[1] Macdonell, A. A. “The Early History of Caste.” The American Historical Review 19, no. 2 (1914): 230–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/1862285.
[3] Dirks, Nicholas B. “Castes of Mind.” Representations, no. 37 (1992): 56–78. https://doi.org/10.2307/2928654.
[4] Dirks, Nicholas B. “Castes of Mind.” Representations, no. 37 (1992): 56–78. https://doi.org/10.2307/2928654.
[5] "What Is India's Caste System?". 2022. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616.
[6] Rao, Jasmine. "The Caste System: Effects on Poverty in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka." Global Majority E-Journal 1, no. 2 (2010): 97-106 https://www.american.edu/cas/economics/ejournal/upload/rao_accessible.pdf
[7] Grieco, Elizabeth M. “The Effects of Migration on the Establishment of Networks: Caste Disintegration and Reformation among the Indians of Fiji.” International Migration Review 32, no. 3 (September 1998): 704–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791839803200306.
[8] Macdonell, A. A. “The Early History of Caste.” The American Historical Review 19, no. 2 (1914): 230–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/1862285.
[9] Dirks, Nicholas B. “Castes of Mind.” Representations, no. 37 (1992): 56–78. https://doi.org/10.2307/2928654.
[10] Macdonell, A. A. “The Early History of Caste.” The American Historical Review 19, no. 2 (1914): 230–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/1862285.
[11] Macdonell, A. A. “The Early History of Caste.” The American Historical Review 19, no. 2 (1914): 230–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/1862285.
[12] "What Is India's Caste System?". 2022. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616.
[13] Rao, Jasmine. "The Caste System: Effects on Poverty in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka." Global Majority E-Journal 1, no. 2 (2010): 97-106 https://www.american.edu/cas/economics/ejournal/upload/rao_accessible.pdf
[14] Gillion, K. L. “The Sources of Indian Emigration to Fiji.” Population Studies 10, no. 2 (1956): 139–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/2172322.
[15] Ramesh, Sanjay. “Indo-Fijian Counter Hegemony in Fiji : a Historical Structural Approach.” Pacific dynamics 1, no. 1 (2017): 66–85. https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10092/13642/Sanjay%20Ramesh-Fiji%20hegemony.pdf?sequence=3
[16] Ramesh, Sanjay. “Indo-Fijian Counter Hegemony in Fiji : a Historical Structural Approach.” Pacific dynamics 1, no. 1 (2017): 66–85. https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10092/13642/Sanjay%20Ramesh-Fiji%20hegemony.pdf?sequence=3
[17] BROWN, CAROLYN HENNING, “Demographic Constraints on Caste: a Fiji Indian Example” American ethnologist 8, no. 2 (1981): 314–328, https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1525/ae.1981.8.2.02a00060
[18] Chand, Satish. 2014. "Socio‑Political Consequences Of Forced Migration: The Case Of Indian Indentured Workers To Fiji". The Central European Journal Of Social Science And Humanities 5: 139-153. doi:10.4467/23916001HG.14.007.2672.
[19] Chand, Satish. 2014. "Socio‑Political Consequences Of Forced Migration: The Case Of Indian Indentured Workers To Fiji". The Central European Journal Of Social Science And Humanities 5: 139-153. doi:10.4467/23916001HG.14.007.2672.
[20] Ramesh, Sanjay. “Indo-Fijian Counter Hegemony in Fiji : a Historical Structural Approach.” Pacific dynamics 1, no. 1 (2017): 66–85. https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10092/13642/Sanjay%20Ramesh-Fiji%20hegemony.pdf?sequence=3
[21] Chand, Satish. 2014. "Socio‑Political Consequences Of Forced Migration: The Case Of Indian Indentured Workers To Fiji". The Central European Journal Of Social Science And Humanities 5: 139-153. doi:10.4467/23916001HG.14.007.2672.
[22] Lal, Brij V. “Hinduism Under Indenture.” In Chalo Jahaji: On a Journey through Indenture in Fiji, 239–60. ANU Press, 2012. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt24h3ss.17.
[23] Chand, Satish. 2014. "Socio‑Political Consequences Of Forced Migration: The Case Of Indian Indentured Workers To Fiji". The Central European Journal Of Social Science And Humanities 5: 139-153. doi:10.4467/23916001HG.14.007.2672.
[24] Lally, Harneel. 2022. "Fiji: Various Issues Of Alienation Of Land Through Failed Land Tenure & Policy". Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal 19 (2): 69-82.
http://blog.hawaii.edu/aplpj/files/2018/04/APLPJ_19.2_Lally.pdf
[25] Pirbhai, Mariam. Mythologies of Migration, Vocabularies of Indenture : Novels of the South Asian Diaspora in Africa, the Caribbean, and Asia-Pacific. Toronto [Ont: University of Toronto Press, 2009.
[26] Pirbhai, Mariam. Mythologies of Migration, Vocabularies of Indenture : Novels of the South Asian Diaspora in Africa, the Caribbean, and Asia-Pacific. Toronto [Ont: University of Toronto Press, 2009.
[27] Lally, Harneel. 2022. "Fiji: Various Issues Of Alienation Of Land Through Failed Land Tenure & Policy". Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal 19 (2): 69-82.
http://blog.hawaii.edu/aplpj/files/2018/04/APLPJ_19.2_Lally.pdf
[28] Lally, Harneel. 2022. "Fiji: Various Issues Of Alienation Of Land Through Failed Land Tenure & Policy". Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal 19 (2): 69-82.
http://blog.hawaii.edu/aplpj/files/2018/04/APLPJ_19.2_Lally.pdf
[29] Pacific islands monthly. (1931) Pacific islands monthly : PIM [Sydney: Pacific Publications. Last Retrieved February, 12 2022 http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-320274035
[30] Kiddle, Gabriel. (2010). Intervention in the Fijian Low-Income Housing Sector: Challenges, Partners and Prospects.
[1] Macdonell, A. A. “The Early History of Caste.” The American Historical Review 19, no. 2 (1914): 230–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/1862285.
[3] Dirks, Nicholas B. “Castes of Mind.” Representations, no. 37 (1992): 56–78. https://doi.org/10.2307/2928654.
[4] Dirks, Nicholas B. “Castes of Mind.” Representations, no. 37 (1992): 56–78. https://doi.org/10.2307/2928654.
[5] "What Is India's Caste System?". 2022. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616.
[6] Rao, Jasmine. "The Caste System: Effects on Poverty in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka." Global Majority E-Journal 1, no. 2 (2010): 97-106 https://www.american.edu/cas/economics/ejournal/upload/rao_accessible.pdf
[7] Grieco, Elizabeth M. “The Effects of Migration on the Establishment of Networks: Caste Disintegration and Reformation among the Indians of Fiji.” International Migration Review 32, no. 3 (September 1998): 704–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791839803200306.
[8] Macdonell, A. A. “The Early History of Caste.” The American Historical Review 19, no. 2 (1914): 230–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/1862285.
[9] Dirks, Nicholas B. “Castes of Mind.” Representations, no. 37 (1992): 56–78. https://doi.org/10.2307/2928654.
[10] Macdonell, A. A. “The Early History of Caste.” The American Historical Review 19, no. 2 (1914): 230–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/1862285.
[11] Macdonell, A. A. “The Early History of Caste.” The American Historical Review 19, no. 2 (1914): 230–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/1862285.
[12] "What Is India's Caste System?". 2022. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616.
[13] Rao, Jasmine. "The Caste System: Effects on Poverty in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka." Global Majority E-Journal 1, no. 2 (2010): 97-106 https://www.american.edu/cas/economics/ejournal/upload/rao_accessible.pdf
[14] Gillion, K. L. “The Sources of Indian Emigration to Fiji.” Population Studies 10, no. 2 (1956): 139–57. https://doi.org/10.2307/2172322.
[15] Ramesh, Sanjay. “Indo-Fijian Counter Hegemony in Fiji : a Historical Structural Approach.” Pacific dynamics 1, no. 1 (2017): 66–85. https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10092/13642/Sanjay%20Ramesh-Fiji%20hegemony.pdf?sequence=3
[16] Ramesh, Sanjay. “Indo-Fijian Counter Hegemony in Fiji : a Historical Structural Approach.” Pacific dynamics 1, no. 1 (2017): 66–85. https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10092/13642/Sanjay%20Ramesh-Fiji%20hegemony.pdf?sequence=3
[17] BROWN, CAROLYN HENNING, “Demographic Constraints on Caste: a Fiji Indian Example” American ethnologist 8, no. 2 (1981): 314–328, https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1525/ae.1981.8.2.02a00060
[18] Chand, Satish. 2014. "Socio‑Political Consequences Of Forced Migration: The Case Of Indian Indentured Workers To Fiji". The Central European Journal Of Social Science And Humanities 5: 139-153. doi:10.4467/23916001HG.14.007.2672.
[19] Chand, Satish. 2014. "Socio‑Political Consequences Of Forced Migration: The Case Of Indian Indentured Workers To Fiji". The Central European Journal Of Social Science And Humanities 5: 139-153. doi:10.4467/23916001HG.14.007.2672.
[20] Ramesh, Sanjay. “Indo-Fijian Counter Hegemony in Fiji : a Historical Structural Approach.” Pacific dynamics 1, no. 1 (2017): 66–85. https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10092/13642/Sanjay%20Ramesh-Fiji%20hegemony.pdf?sequence=3
[21] Chand, Satish. 2014. "Socio‑Political Consequences Of Forced Migration: The Case Of Indian Indentured Workers To Fiji". The Central European Journal Of Social Science And Humanities 5: 139-153. doi:10.4467/23916001HG.14.007.2672.
[22] Lal, Brij V. “Hinduism Under Indenture.” In Chalo Jahaji: On a Journey through Indenture in Fiji, 239–60. ANU Press, 2012. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt24h3ss.17.
[23] Chand, Satish. 2014. "Socio‑Political Consequences Of Forced Migration: The Case Of Indian Indentured Workers To Fiji". The Central European Journal Of Social Science And Humanities 5: 139-153. doi:10.4467/23916001HG.14.007.2672.
[24] Lally, Harneel. 2022. "Fiji: Various Issues Of Alienation Of Land Through Failed Land Tenure & Policy". Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal 19 (2): 69-82.
http://blog.hawaii.edu/aplpj/files/2018/04/APLPJ_19.2_Lally.pdf
[25] Pirbhai, Mariam. Mythologies of Migration, Vocabularies of Indenture : Novels of the South Asian Diaspora in Africa, the Caribbean, and Asia-Pacific. Toronto [Ont: University of Toronto Press, 2009.
[26] Pirbhai, Mariam. Mythologies of Migration, Vocabularies of Indenture : Novels of the South Asian Diaspora in Africa, the Caribbean, and Asia-Pacific. Toronto [Ont: University of Toronto Press, 2009.
[27] Lally, Harneel. 2022. "Fiji: Various Issues Of Alienation Of Land Through Failed Land Tenure & Policy". Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal 19 (2): 69-82.
http://blog.hawaii.edu/aplpj/files/2018/04/APLPJ_19.2_Lally.pdf
[28] Lally, Harneel. 2022. "Fiji: Various Issues Of Alienation Of Land Through Failed Land Tenure & Policy". Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal 19 (2): 69-82.
http://blog.hawaii.edu/aplpj/files/2018/04/APLPJ_19.2_Lally.pdf
[29] Pacific islands monthly. (1931) Pacific islands monthly : PIM [Sydney: Pacific Publications. Last Retrieved February, 12 2022 http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-320274035
[30] Kiddle, Gabriel. (2010). Intervention in the Fijian Low-Income Housing Sector: Challenges, Partners and Prospects.